Susan Avery, Assistant
Professor, Research Librarian and Coordinator of Library Instruction�
Randy Brooks, Associate
Professor of English�
James Brown, Assistant
Professor of Physics
Paul Dorsey, Associate
Professor of Management Information Systems
Michael O�Conner, Academic
Webmaster and Assistant Professor of English and Learning and Technology�
Abstract:� Two central issues in the undergraduate
curriculum are the disjoined relationship between general education and the
majors, and the coherence of a technology integration model. The framework of
Personal Knowledge Management (PKM) has been developed by the authors as a
vehicle for dealing with both of these central problems and developing a sense
of personal responsibility.� The PKM
framework emphasizes learning-to-learn information skills: retrieving information,
evaluating information, organizing information, collaborating around
information, analyzing information, securing information and presenting
information.� These information skills
underlie an effective strategy for integrating information technology into the
curriculum rather than focusing on technology as an end in itself.� The PKM framework emphasizes technology as
integral to the inquiry and problem solving processes that are fundamental to
both general education and academic majors.�
In their paper the authors develop the Personal Knowledge Management
framework as the grounds for a genuine partnership between faculty teaching
general education and major courses.
The framework of Personal
Knowledge Management (PKM) has grown from a series of discussions among a group
of Millikin University faculty from diverse disciplines and backgrounds seeking
to build a cross-disciplinary approach that integrates elements of both
critical thinking and information literacy.��
The initial framework for PKM was developed by Dr. Paul Dorsey and was
further defined and conceptualized through a Faculty Seminar at Millikin
University in summer 2000 and through a small working group of faculty meeting
regularly during the 2000-2001 academic year.�
This group, which consists of faculty from the humanities, natural
sciences, business and library science, has focused on the cross-disciplinary
nature of inquiry and problem solving.�
The work of this group suggests that inquiry and problem solving skills
share common threads that span the disciplines despite superficial
differences.� PKM, which aims to bridge
both general education and the disciplines, promises to provide us with both a
common language and a common understanding of the intellectual and practical
processes necessary for the acquisition of information and its subsequent
transformation into knowledge.
Information literacy and
critical thinking are two other frameworks in higher education today that seek
to provide shared moorings for inquiry.�
These are more than buzz-phrases making their way through our campuses;
they are crucial skills required for successful problem solving in the
twenty-first century. The exponential increases in information available
dictate that we change our approaches to both the gathering and use of
information and the subsequent transformation of that information into
knowledge.� How does this relate to
information literacy and critical thinking, and how does inquiry and problem
solving fit into this equation?��
In The End of Patience
David Shenk notes: �We must not confuse the thrill of acquiring or distributing
information quickly with the more daunting task of converting it into knowledge
and wisdom.� Regardless of how advanced
our computers become, we should never use them as a substitute for our own
basic cognitive skills of awareness, perception, reasoning and judgment.�[i]� Technology has given us the ability to both
access and retrieve volumes of information that would have been unthinkable
just 10 years ago.� Since 1992 the use
of information in print formats has decreased between four and six percent,
while at the same time the use of the Internet has grown 2050%.� We need a framework that will help us
effectively address these issues.� We
believe that Personal Knowledge Management provides us with that framework.
We believe that the
information literacy and critical thinking movements have made positive
contributions to the search for common grounds in inquiry.� Information literacy, by focusing on the
central role of librarians and information resources, has helped to focus on
the information skills that will underpin inquiry in the twenty-first
century.� At the same time, the
information literacy movement, while emphasizing skills in retrieving,
evaluating and organizing information, has placed less emphasis on
collaborating around, securing and presenting information.� The critical thinking movement, by focusing
on the central inquiry skill of analyzing information, has promoted an
ecumenical approach to inquiry.� However,
that approach has also neglected the collaborative nature of inquiry and the
skills in securing and presenting information that are central to PKM.� We believe that PKM provides a framework
that is both comprehensive and inclusive.�
It also enables us to link our technology tools with a set of
information skills, thus providing an intentionality that moves the focus from
the technology more directly to the information.��
The term knowledge management
was first used by management guru Peter Drucker in the mid-1980s. This concept
focused on measuring an organization�s intellectual assets and adding value and
meaning to its information by asking questions such as: What do we (the
organization) need to know?� Who knows
it?� Who needs to know it?� How can the people who need this information
access it?� Knowledge management
provides a framework for sharing organizational information.
Subsequently, in the
mid-1990s, the term Knowledge Management took on a new meaning through the
development of computer applications that provide a means of organizing and
accessing the information within an organization.�� In this paper, we are not focusing
on knowledge management in this sense. With our framework of Personal Knowledge
Management, we are extending Drucker�s vision by focusing on how his �knowledge
workers� become more effective learners at the individual level.� In our view, technology within PKM is a
means�albeit a potentially powerful means--to an end within inquiry, rather
than the end itself.
Using PKM requires that we
clarify the distinction between data, information and knowledge.� We agree with Peter Drucker that information
is �data endowed with relevance and purpose.��
But at what point does information become knowledge?� We believe that information must have focus
and relatedness to become knowledge; it is especially the significance and
value of information that makes it knowledge.�
We agree with Davenport and Prusak who argue that for information to
become knowledge, �humans must do virtually all the work� which entails
activities such as comparing, exploring consequences, making connection to
other information and knowledge, and conversing with others.
It is with these points in
mind that we focus on the information skills underlying effective Personal
Knowledge Management, and we explore how they help to provide a framework for
integration and partnerships.
Personal Knowledge Management
is best viewed as based on a set of problem solving skills that have both a
logical or conceptual as well as physical or hands-on component.� These are skills that will be required for
successful problem solving knowledge work in the twenty-first century. Teaching
PKM entails sharing both intelligent practices that guide the use of tools as
well as intelligent and efficient use of the tools themselves.
We have identified the following seven PKM skills:� (1) retrieving information; (2) evaluating information; (3) organizing information; (4) collaborating around information (5) analyzing information; (6) presenting information; and (7) securing information.� Each of the seven is briefly summarized below.� The focus is on clarifying the processes involved in the proper exercise of each skill with a brief reference to implications for technology integration at the end of the summary.
(1) Retrieving
information. Retrieving information involves gathering information not just
from print and electronic sources, but through experimentation and oral inquiry,
as well as a broad range of more discipline-specific techniques.� Capabilities required range from the
low-tech skills of asking questions, listening, and following up to skills in
using search tools, reading and note-taking.�
Concepts of widening and narrowing one�s search, Boolean logic, and
iterative search practices are an important part of the effective exercise of
this PKM skill as are social skills required for more effective oral
inquiry.� Also, as the literature on
information literacy emphasizes, considerable effort should be placed on
framing inquiry even before information retrieval commences. The effective use
of Internet search engines and electronic databases in the inquiry process
requires technology skills as part of the repertoire of PKM skills.
(2) Evaluating
information.� This skill is closely
related to the skill of retrieving information.� Strategies of information retrieval should be based on practices
that select data and information that pass some evaluative tests.� However, evaluation also takes place after
retrieval as the quality and relevance of various pieces of information are
judged as they relate to the problem at hand.�
We recognize that difference disciplines tend to emphasize disparate
evaluative criteria as they determine quality and relevance.� The greater availability of information in
the current information-rich environments makes this skill of far greater
importance in the electronic age.� The
intelligent use of some crude electronic tools, such as �relevance raters,� can
be relevant to the effective evaluation of information.
(3) Organizing information.� Organizing information is a central part of
the inquiry process focused on making the connections necessary to link pieces
of information.� Techniques for organizing
information help the inquirer to overcome some of the limitations of the human
information processing system.� In some
ways the key challenge in organizing information is for the inquirer to make
the information his or her own through the use of ordering and connecting
principles that relate new information to old information.� Elementary skills of synthesis and analysis
are central to this process.�
Technological skills in organizing information have become ever more
important as electronic tools such as directories and folders, databases, web
pages, and web portals provide the inquirer with ever more powerful tools to
make connections.
(4) Collaborating Around
Information.� The interdisciplinary
literature on effective teams and groups is replete with principles for
effective collaborative work.�
Listening, showing respect for the understanding of others� ideas,
developing and following through on shared practices, building win/win
relationships, and resolving conflicts are among those underlying principles.� Within collaborative inquiry, partners in
inquiry need to learn to have their voice heard and to hear other voices.� Both cultural and more nuts-and-bolts
practical issues need to be attended to.�
The availability of new electronic tools for collaboration to support
both synchronous and asynchronous communication requires a whole new set of
procedures for efficient information exchange.
(5) Analyzing Information.� The analysis of information is fundamental
to the process of converting information into knowledge.� At the same time, this is the most
discipline-specific information skill since the models, theories and frameworks
that are central to analysis are frequently tied to the academic disciplines.� Analysis builds on the organization of
information, but goes beyond it in its emphasis on the importance of respect
for standards in public communities. This skill addresses the challenge of
extracting meaning out of data.�� In
some disciplines, electronic tools such as electronic spreadsheets and statistical
software provide the means to analyze information, but the human element is
central in framing the models that are embodied in that software.
(6) Presenting
Information.� Key to the
presentation of information is audience; this means, as in the case of
analyzing information, that understanding disciplinary communities�often an
important audience--and their norms and standards are of central
importance.�� An effective presentation
assumes not only an understanding of audience, but a clear understanding of the
purpose of the presentation as it relates to audience.� The history and theory of rhetoric provides
an abundant literature for guidance in the exercise of this skill.�� The emergence of new electronic tools and
venues for presentations, through computer-based presentation tools and web
sites, makes attention to this information skill even more important.
(7) Securing Information.� Securing information is frequently neglected
as an information skill.� However, the
centrality of intellectual property issues and the multiplicity of security
issues arising from the explosion of electronically networked environments make
security issues more and more salient.�
Securing information entails developing and implementing practices that
help to assure the confidentiality, integrity and actual existence of
information.� An appreciation of
intellectual property issues of copyrights and patents is very important.� Such practices as password management,
backup, archiving and use of encryption are other important elements for the
effective practice of this skill in electronic environments.
These information skills are,
in one sense, problem solving, rather than problem definition, skills.� However, while these information skills may
be used within a given context of problem definition, the processes involved in
the use of these skills�especially evaluation, organization and
analysis�inevitably contribute to a re-definition and refinement of the problem
at hand.�� Problem solving is a dynamic,
adaptive process.� Inquiry necessarily
invokes feedback and reflection that shape the very nature of the inquiry
question.� The PKM skills are best used
in an iterative, rather than merely sequential, fashion.� Inquiry frequently takes unexpected turns.
The Personal in PKM
Why is this model called
�Personal� Knowledge Management? At a time when we are becoming more aware of
the value of the social mind�a network of collaborative, shared thinking�why is
it necessary to be concerned with the personal?� Models of cognitive development and creativity continually push
us to consider social contexts. And certainly, we emphasize as one of the seven
key information skills the ability to �collaborate� around information. So why
do we call this �Personal� Knowledge Management?� What is personal about knowledge or the management of knowledge?
Let us begin by discussing
things we do not subscribe to as �personal� in this model. We do not see
�personal� knowledge as private knowledge intended to be learned and kept
within the individual. We are not talking about �learning for its own sake.� We
are not assuming that learners must go through a withdrawal from community or
social perspectives as a means of enhancing their �intrapersonal�
communication. We do not have to withdraw from society in order to develop our
�personal� knowledge or deep thinking capabilities. We are also not encouraging
an artificial distinction between avocational and professional knowledge. Nor
are we defining �personal� as opposed to �public� knowledge, since our model emphasizes
�presenting information� as one of the seven essential PKM skills.
In fact, our concept of Personal Knowledge
Management assumes a strategic balancing of the private and the public, the
citizen and the professional, the intrapersonal and interpersonal, the deep
thinker and the active problem solver�a self-awareness of one�s own abilities
and expertise within a public sphere of action.� We are also assuming that the individual person using PKM skills
is central to the collective process of managing knowledge in groups, in
organizations and in society.� Just as a
well-functioning electronic network depends on well-managed individual nodes
that are connected to the network, so does community knowledge depend on
well-developed individual contributors.
�Personal� Knowledge Management assumes that individuals have developed a self-awareness of their limits and abilities�what they know and what they can do. This personal self-awareness is an understanding of how much they know, how to access the things they know, strategies for acquiring new knowledge and strategies for accessing new information as needed. In the vast amount of information available and many means of acquiring new information, individuals have each mapped out their own areas of expertise and their own methods for additional learning.
There is
an increased confidence in one�s knowledge and in one�s knowledge-building
capabilities that result from this personal self-understanding. Having worked
through the oceans of information and having created roadmaps of those journeys
through their writings, filing systems, notes and other means, each person
acquires a confidence in their own ability to know or to access or to build
knowledge they need. Whether this acquired knowledge is stored in the form of
computer files, filing cabinets, book cases, piles or in memory, each person
acquires and manages their own knowledge. The information and knowledge is
rarely something that can be owned by the individual. But the organization of
information and methods of accessing information is almost always personal.
This is why you cannot copyright ideas, but you can copyright the publication
of ideas in a book that orders them in a specific way.
Of course, the individual
never truly develops that sense of confidence and expertise if he or she is not
asked to use that knowledge in the service of others. The value of the
knowledge and the personal management of that knowledge are evident as it is put
to use in a social, public sphere of problem solving. This leads us to the
necessary balance of the private and the public. To prepare the individual for
self-responsibility�that sense of being able to make commitments to others and
to fulfill promised contributions�each person needs effective access to their
own knowledge. In this sense, self-responsibility is the ability to use one�s
expertise and abilities to help others. The ultimate goal of Personal Knowledge
Management is not merely to possess knowledge and certain thinking abilities,
but to value the use of that knowledge in the service of others and in the
enhancement of societal knowledge. The public use of knowledge reaffirms the
individual identity of the person who contributes, who has knowledge, who can
organize information and who can be a part of a team or a community beyond the
self.
PKM, Majors and General
Education Requirements
The majors and the general
education curriculum are often experienced and viewed by students as at odds
with one another. It is the oft repeated phrase "Why do I need to know
that? I'm going to be a ...." that is perhaps the most disheartening to
faculty. Faculty often recognize the interconnectedness of disciplines and
share the more profound observation that the majors each lie upon the
foundation of the general education portion of the curriculum. Many students
enter college believing that a college education is merely a process by which
they will be prepared to practice a profession by learning the latest information
relating to the practice of that profession. This view is in contrast to the
educational values of many faculty.�
Even within the field of arts and sciences, there is considerable
evidence that students feel that �they have no need or responsibility to
integrate their learning across multiple domains of inquiry and practice�� (Schneider 30).
As faculty we often find
ourselves struggling with the question of how to show our students that it is
far more important that they learn to learn and to adapt rather than narrowly
focus on achieving excellence in their chosen discipline. Personal Knowledge
Management provides a framework for emphasizing both the interconnectedness of
the majors and general education as well as for learning to learn and for learning
to adapt to change. These are some of the most valuable skills a good college
education can offer.
The specific knowledge
learned in the major is often fleeting and becomes rapidly obsolete. In the
early 1940's supersonic air travel was widely viewed to be and taught as being
impossible. Yet students today take space flight for granted. The rate at which
the specifics of what one learns in college becomes obsolete is perhaps the
most rapid it has ever been. The skills learned by a computer science student
as a freshmen will likely have seen great modification by the time that same
student is a senior. The greatest constant in all the disciplines is change,
and as Darwin pointed out, constant change means constant adaptation or
extinction. PKM allows students to develop a deliberate, reflective and
adaptable cognitive framework for inquiry and problem solving.
An outline for inquiry and
the conversion of data to information and information into knowledge is
provided by the seven skills of PKM. These skills are not discipline-specific;
in many ways they are shared across all disciplines. The scientist attacking a
new problem must first seek what has been done, evaluate the quality and
context of the previous work, form a group to study the problem, conduct the
needed experimental or theoretical work and finally secure the results until
they are presented for publication. The author seeking to write a new novel
must read about the time and place the work is set in and must decide what
relevant parts of that context will influence the characters and action. The
course of the work must then be outlined, and the outline most likely then will
be discussed with the author's publisher. The publisher will have feedback. The
author must analyze that feedback in context and will perhaps modify the
outline before proceeding with the work. While writing, the author should be
aware of the security of the work, and finally the work is made into a form
presentable for public distribution.
The PKM framework does not require the introduction of a plethora of new learning activities and skills. It simply provides a means of seeing connections in the learning activities we are already engaged in as faculty and students. The scientific method begins with reviews of existing knowledge, formulating an experiment around the unknown, organizing the results of the data collected and presenting the outcomes in the form of findings and future questions to explore. The graphic designer considers the existing designs of an organization, the specific needs of the current situation, gathers needed information and creates a means of organizing that information with a presentation design strategy. Instead of viewing these learning experiences (and many others) in different disciplines as fundamentally at odds with each other, with PKM the students and faculty have a shared vocabulary regarding inquiry processes. Students and faculty as inquirers are provided a means of intellectually bridging these experiences through a broader conception of Personal Knowledge Management. They may gain a better appreciation for what Howard Gardner calls �multiple intelligences� within themselves and among other learners. They should have mastery of their discipline�s inquiry methods, but also an appreciation and ability to collaborate with other disciplinary methods.
The glue that binds the
majors and general education can be PKM. Two of the primary goals of each are
inquiry skills and problem solving skills. The skills of the PKM process
outline a method for inquiry that spans the disciplines. These skills also
emphasize that the method of problem solving is not inherently
discipline-specific. While problem solving techniques seem at first glance to
be tightly linked to a specific discipline, the general method often can be
summarized as asking, "What do I want to do? What do I need to know to do
it? What is already known? How can I create new knowledge to span from what is
known to what I need to know? Once I've done what I want to do, how will I let
others know?" A business major may want to develop a firm to market mouse
traps. This student would ask, "Who buys mousetraps? at what price? and in
what volume?" Having done this the student would retrieve, evaluate,
organize and analyze the needed information. Next, the student would ask,
"How can I get people to buy my mousetraps?" The student would then
likely form a presentation of this information and a plan to use it before
seeking the collaboration of venture capitalists and engineers, to fund and
design the better mousetrap. After developing a better mousetrap they would
likely secure their rights through patents, before presenting their new product
to the public for purchase. The process would be much the same for a scientist
seeking to understand some aspect of the natural world better, or for a
politician seeking to address some great societal ill.
Perhaps by emphasizing PKM
skills in both the general education and major discipline portions of the
curriculum faculty will more often hear "I see how this is important,
maybe I can use this in a new way as a ..." and know that a student has
learned how to learn.
The seven
steps of the Personal Knowledge Management information process provide a valuable
framework to introduce and enhance technology integration into an institution's
curriculum.� One of the clarion calls we
hear again and again today in higher education, and even in secondary
education, is that we need to introduce students to information literacy
skills.� The PKM framework provides this
introduction paired with critical thinking skills and a clear and structured
methodology for integrating technology into education efficiently and
constructively.� Let's take a moment to
examine just a few of the individual PKM skills and consider how they could
provide a more seamless integration of technology use across a curriculum.�
College librarians were some of the first members of the academic community who had to staff the "front lines" of teaching information retrieval and evaluation skills to students.� With the advent of online catalogues, electronic resource databases and the appearance of millions of web sites that students needed to cope with, those in the library had to, and still have to, scramble to keep ahead of the ever-changing and expanding technology curve in information access.�� These changes have dictated that evaluation of information must be an even larger part of the process.�� Many librarians developed teaching modules to familiarize students with the proper methods of retrieving and evaluating information.� These modules were sometimes developed in cooperation with faculty members in the disciplines and sometimes not.� Sometimes those in other disciplines, like English or history, ended up reinventing the wheel, coming up with their own approach to retrieving and evaluating online information.� In those cases, the approaches may have been varied or contradictory.�� However, if PKM skills were adopted across the curriculum, though certainly tailored for each individual discipline and its unique needs, then a common approach, methodology and shared terminology would help integrate proper technology use and information literacy across the institution.�� Teaching resources could be shared across the campus, and these skills would be reinforced as they were used in the varied courses the students take.
In the same ways, PKM skills
of organizing, analyzing and collaborating around information, can offer an
overall structured process for intentionally managing information and turning
it into useful knowledge.� Technology
tools provide a special help in organizing and collaborating around information
throughout the disciplines and in analyzing information in selected
disciplines.� If these skills were
taught, known and utilized in each discipline across the curriculum, students
would come to understand how important holistic information skills and critical
thinking skills are in helping to process, interpret and synthesize information
and in producing and contributing knowledge in any content area.� If the skill sets are general enough, they
tend to apply to typical educational tasks in almost every discipline.� Though disciplines like English and biology
often concern themselves with different types of information and content, many
of the skills associated with organizing, analyzing and collaborating around
information, especially using the tools of technology, are much the same and
could be shared or at least directly compared and contrasted between
disciplines that are aware of a similar skill set.
In covering technology skills
themselves, one might as well forget the concept of disciplines
altogether.� Music majors and political
science majors alike are all using technology today to store, arrange and
manage information.� When it comes to
PKM skills of presenting and securing information, every single student, staff
member and faculty member in the institution needs a firm grasp and understanding
of these skills.� Whether it is backing
up a hard drive, checking for viruses on a floppy disk or properly creating and
projecting a PowerPoint presentation, everyone should have the knowledge and
experience to perform these tasks.��
Shared PKM skills, as part of the general knowledge base of an
institution, will put every member of that institution on a level playing
field, making each individual responsible for her or his own information
management, no matter where they fall in the institutional hierarchy.�� Then, everyone becomes empowered to locate,
access, manipulate, shape, control and secure the information they need to
complete their varied duties, whether those duties are to keep a set of course
grades, research a critical article for publication or share information with
peers over the internet.
With institutional adoption
of the PKM processes, there is a leveraging of higher order skills associated
with utilizing technology and information literacy.� Obviously, instead of focusing on "data processing," or
specific technological tools, an overall skills process is emphasized
here.� This larger stability of skills
avoids a concentration on tools that may constantly change every three or four
years, investing rather in the overall process of learning how to learn that
will remain constant.� PKM integration,
while recognizing the strengths of technological tools, also allows users to
recognize the limitations of technology use in education, thereby demythologizing
the place of technology in institutions of higher learning.� It represents an antidote to an
over-reliance on technology skills.�
Technophiles may not recognize that these tools are only useful insofar
as they can assist with specific inquiry and learning skills.�
This paper portrays a vision
and framework for integrating inquiry and problem solving skills across the
disciplines.� Currently at Millikin
University it has been implemented only in limited parts of the curriculum by
self-selected faculty.� At this time, a
strategy for broader implementation of Personal Knowledge Management�both as a
tool for integrating general education and the majors and for integrating
technology into the curriculum�is being developed. At Millikin University, we
have piloted three courses where students are beginning to utilize PKM skills
in conjunction with the development of electronic portfolios. The librarians
are also making a concerted effort to bring to the forefront the integration of
PKM skills of retrieval and evaluation of information into instructional
sessions that are part of freshmen core courses.� Key to that library instruction has been the focus on concepts of
retrieval and evaluation rather than merely proficiency in using retrieval
tools.�
We continue to look for
opportunities to integrate PKM skills into the curriculum.�� The principal focus of our implementation
efforts is on the three key promises of PKM:�
(1) as a stimulus for an improved sense of student responsibility; (2)
as a framework for integrating general education and majors as part of the
Millikin Program of Student Learning; and (3) as an approach to technology
integration initiatives throughout the curriculum.
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