Skip to main content

Advertisement

Springer Nature Link
Log in

Assessment of Motor Functioning in the Preschool Period

  • Review
  • Published:
Neuropsychology Review Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The assessment of motor functioning in young children has become increasingly important in recent years with the acknowledgement that motor impairment is linked with cognitive, language, social and emotional difficulties. However, there is no one gold standard assessment tool to investigate motor ability in children. The aim of the current paper was to discuss the issues related to the assessment of motor ability in young pre-school children and to provide guidelines on the best approach for motor assessment. The paper discusses the maturational changes in brain development at the preschool level in relation to motor ability. Other issues include sex differences in motor ability at this young age, and evidence for this in relation to sociological versus biological influences. From the previous literature it is unclear what needs to be assessed in relation to motor functioning. Should the focus be underlying motor processes or movement skill assessment? Several key assessment tools are discussed that produce a general measure of motor performance followed by a description of tools that assess specific skills, such as fine and gross motor, ball and graphomotor skills. The paper concludes with recommendations on the best approach in assessing motor function in pre-school children.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Explore related subjects

Discover the latest articles and news from researchers in related subjects, suggested using machine learning.

References

  • Alloway, T. P. (2007). Working memory, reading, and mathematical skills in children with developmental coordination disorder. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 96, 20–36.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: text revision (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

  • Anastasi, A. (1981). Sex differences: historical perspectives and methodological implications. Developmental Review, 1, 187–206.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barnett, A. L. (2008). Motor assessment in developmental coordination disorder: from identification to intervention. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 55(2), 113–129.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blank, R., Smits-Engelsman, B., Polatajko, H., & Wilson, P. (2012). European Academy for Childhood Disability (EACD): recommendations on the definition, diagnosis and intervention of developmental coordination disorder (long version). Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 54, 54–93. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8749.2011.04171.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bower, T. G. R. (1977). A primer of infant development. San Fransisco: Freeman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brantner, S., Piek, J. P., & Smith, L. M. (2009). Evaluation of the validity of the MAND in assessing motor impairment in young children. Rehabilitation Psychology, 54, 413–421.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, T., & Lalor, A. (2009). The Movement Assessment Battery for Children – Sescond Edition (MABC-2): a review and critique. Physical & Occupational Therapy in Pediatrics, 29(1), 86–103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bruininks, R. H. (1978). The Bruininks - Oseretsky test of motor proficiency examiner’s manual. Circle Pines: American Guidance Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruininks, R. H., & Bruininks, B. D. (2005). Test of motor proficiency (2nd ed.). Circle Pines: AGS Publishing. Manual.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burton, A. W., & Miller, D. E. (1998). Movement skill assessment. Champaign: Human Kinetics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burton, A. W., & Rodgerson, R. W. (2001). New perspectives on the assessment of movement skills and motor abilities. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 18, 347–365.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cairney, J., Veldhuizen, S., & Szatmari, P. (2010). Motor coordination and emotional-behavioral problems in children. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 23, 324–329.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cantell, M. H., Smyth, M. M., & Ahonen, T. P. (1994). Clumsiness in adolescence: educational, motor, and social outcomes of motor delay detected at 5 years. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 11(2), 115–129.

    Google Scholar 

  • Capute, A. J., Shapiro, B. K., Palmer, F. B., Ross, A., & Wachtel, R. C. (1985). Normal gross motor development: the influences of race, sex and socio-economic status. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 27, 635–643.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carlson, N. R. (2010). Physiology of behavior (10th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Casey, B. J., Tottenham, N., Liston, C., & Durston, S. (2005). Imaging the developing brain: what have we learned about cognitive development? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9(3), 104–110.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chia, L. C., Guelfi, K. J., & Licari, M. K. (2009). A comparison of the oxygen cost of locomotion in children with and without developmental coordination disorder. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 52, 251–255.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chugani, H. T. (1994). Development of regional brain glucose metabolism in relation to behaviour and plasticity. In G. Dawson & K. Fischer (Eds.), Human behaviour and the developing brain (pp. 153–175). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chugani, H. T. (1998). A critical period of brain development: studies of cerebral glucose utilization with PET. Preventive Medicine, 27, 184–188.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chugani, H. T., Phelps, M. E., & Mazziotta, J. C. (1987). Positron emission tomography study of human brain development. Annals of Neurology, 22, 487–497.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cools, W., De Martelaer, K., Samaey, C., & Andries, C. (2009). Movement skill assessment of typically developing preschool children: a review of seven movement skill assessment tools. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 8, 154–168.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Bellis, M. D., Keshavan, M. S., Beers, S. R., Hall, J., Frustaci, K., Masalehdan, A., et al. (2001). Sex differences in brain maturation during childhood and adolescence. Cerebral Cortex, 11, 552–557.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deitz, J. C., Kartin, D., & Kopp, K. (2007). Review of the Bruininks-Oserestsky Test of motor proficiency, second edition (BOT-2). Physical & Occupational Therapy in Pediatrics, 27(4), 87–102.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dekaban, A. S. (1978). Changes in brain weights during the span of human life: relation of brain weights to body heights and body weights. Annals of Neurology, 4(4), 345–356.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dewey, D., Cantell, M., & Crawford, S. G. (2007). Motor and gestural performance in children with autism spectrum disorders, developmental coordination disorder and/or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 13, 246–256.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dewey, D., Wilson, B. N., Crawford, S. G., & Kaplan, B. J. (2000). Comorbidity of developmental coordination disorder with ADHD and reading disability. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 6, 152.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dyck, M., Piek, J. P., Hay, D. A., Smith, L., & Hallmayer, J. (2006). Are abilities abnormally interdependent in children with autism? Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 35, 20–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Engel-Yeger, B., Rosenblum, S., & Josman, N. (2010). Movement Assessment Battery for Children (M-ABC): establishing construct validity for Israeli children. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 31(1), 87–96.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Erez, O., Gordon, C. R., Sever, J., Sadeh, A., & Matti, M. (2004). Balance dysfunction in childhood anxiety: findings and theoretical approach. Anxiety Disorders, 18, 341–356.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fawcett, A. J., & Nicholson, R. I. (1995). Persistent deficits in motor skill of children with dyslexia. Journal of Motor Behavior, 27, 235–240.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fietzek, U. M., Heinen, F., Berweck, S., Maute, S., Hufschmidt, A., Schulte-Mönting, J., et al. (2000). Development of the corticospinal system and hand motor function: central conduction times and motor performance tests. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 42, 220–227.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Folio, M. R., & Fewell, R. R. (1983). Peabody developmental motor scales and activity cards. Allen: DLM Teachers Resources.

    Google Scholar 

  • Folio, M. R., & Fewell, R. R. (2000). Peabody Developmental Motor Scales (PDMS-2). Austin: Pro-ed.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gallahue, D. L., & Ozmun, J. C. (2002). Understanding motor development: Infants, children, adolescents, adults (5th ed.). Singapore: McGraw Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Geuze, R. H., Jongmans, M. J., Schoemaker, M. M., & Smits-Engelsman, B. C. M. (2001). Clinical and research diagnostic criteria for developmental coordination disorder: a review and discussion. Human Movement Science, 20, 7–47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goodway, J. D., Crowe, H., & Ward, P. (2003). Effects of motor skill instruction on fundamental motor skill development. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 20, 298–314.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gottlieb, G. (2001). The relevance of developmental-psychobiological metatheory to developmental neuropsychology. Developmental Neuropsychology, 19(10), 1–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Greenough, W. T., & Black, J. E. (1992). Induction of brain structure by experience: Substrates for cognitive development. In M. Gunnar & C. Nelson (Eds.), Minnesota symposia on child psychology. Vol. 24. Developmental Behavioral Neuroscience (p. 155–200).

  • Groeschel, S., Vollmer, B., King, M. D., & Connelly, A. (2010). Developmental changes in cerebral grey and white matter volume from infancy to adulthood. International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience, 28, 481–489.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gutteridge, M. (1939). A study of motor achievements of young children. Archives of Psychology, 244, 1–178.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haas, G., & Diener, H. C. (1988). Development of stance control in children. In B. Amblard, A. Berthoz, & F. Clarac (Eds.), Posture and gait: development, adaptation and modulation (pp. 49–58). Amsterdam: Elsevier.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton, A. (1981). Nature and nurture: Aboriginal child-rearing in north-central Arnhem land. Canberra: Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hands, B., & Larkin, D. (1997). Gender bias in measurement of movement. ACHPER Healthy Lifestyles Journal, 44(1), 12–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hands, B., & Larkin, D. (2002). Physical fitness and developmental coordination disorder. In S. A. Cermak & D. Larkin (Eds.), Developmental coordination disorder. San Diego: Thomson Learning.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hands, B., & Larkin, D. (2006). Physical fitness of children with motor learning difficulties. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 21(4), 447–456.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hands, B., Larkin, D., Parker, H., Straker, L., & Perry, M. (2009). The relationship among physical activity, motor competence and health-related fitness in 14-year-old adolescents. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 18, 655–663. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0838.2008.00847.x.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henderson, S. E., & Sugden, D. A. (1992). Movement assessment battery for children: manual. London: The Psychological Corporation Ltd.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henderson, S. E., Sugden, D. A., & Barnett, A. L. (2007). Movement assessment battery for children – 2 (2nd ed.). London: Harcourt Assessment.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hillier, S. (2007). Intervention for children with developmental coordination disorder: a systematic review. The Internet Journal of Allied Health Sciences and Practice, 5, 1–11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, M.H. (2003). Development of human brain functions. 54, 1312–1316.

  • Keogh, J., & Sugden, D. (1985). Movement skill development. New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kiphard, E. J., & Schilling, F. (2007). Körperkoordinationtest für Kinder 2, überarbeitete und ergänzte Auflage. Weinheim: Beltz test.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kurdek, L. A., & Sinclair, R. J. (2001). Predicting reading and mathematics achievement in fourth-grade children from kindergarten readiness scores. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 451–455.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Largo, R. H., Caflisch, J. A., Hug, F., Muggli, K., Molnar, A. A., Molinari, L., et al. (2001). Neuromotor development from 5 to 18 years. Part 1: timed performance. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 32, 436–443.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, Y., Metems, T., Absil, J., De Maertelaer, V., Balériaux, D., David, P., et al. (2011). Gender differences in language and motor-related fibers in a population of healthy preterm neonates at term-equivalent age: a diffusion tensor and probablistic tractography study. American Journal of Neuroradiology, 32, 2011–2016.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Livesey, D., Coleman, R., & Piek, J. (2007). Performance on the movement assessment battery for children by Australian 3- to 5-year-old children. Child: Care, Health and Development. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2214.2007.00733.x.

  • Losse, A., Henderson, A. E., Elliman, D., Hall, D., Knight, E., & Jongmans, M. (1991). Clumsiness in children - Do they grow out of it? A ten-year follow-up study. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 33, 55–68.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mandich, A. D., Polatajko, H. J., & Rodger, S. (2003). Rites of passage: understanding participation of children with developmental coordination disorder. Human Movement Science, 22, 583–595.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McCarron, L. T. (1997). MAND McCarron Assessment of Neuromuscular Development: fine and gross motor abilities (Rev. ed.). Dallas: Common Market Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • McPhillips, M., & Jordan-Black, J. (2007). The effect of social disadvantage on motor development in young children: a comparative study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 1214–1222.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miyahara, M., & Piek, J. P. (2006). Self-esteem of children and adolescents with physical disabilities: quantitative evidence from meta-analysis. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 18, 219–234.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morris, A., Williams, J., Atwater, A., & Wilmore, J. (1982). Age and sex differences in motor performances of 3 through to 6 year old children. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 53(3), 214–221.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murray, G. K., Veijola, J., Moilanen, K., Miettunen, J., Glahn, D. C., Cannon, T. D., et al. (2006). Infant motor development is associated with adult cognitive categorisation in a longitudinal birth cohort study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 25–29.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pearsall-Jones, J. G., Piek, J. P., Rigoli, D., Martin, N., & Levy, F. (2011). Motor disorder and anxiety and depressive symptomatology: a monozygotic co-twin control approach. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 32, 1245–1252.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pedersen, A. V., Sigmundsson, H., Whiting, H. T. A., & Ingvaldsen, R. P. (2003). Sex differences in lateralisaton of fine manual skills in children. Experimental Brain Research, 149, 249–251.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Perrin, J. S., Leonard, G., Perron, M., Pike, G. B., Pitiot, A., Richer, L., et al. (2009). Sex differences in the growth of white matter during adolescence. NeuroImage, 45, 1055–1066.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Piek, J. P. (2006). Infant motor development. Champaign: Human Kinetics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Piek, J. P., Barrett, N. C., Smith, L. M., Rigoli, D., & Gasson, N. (2010). Do motor skills in infancy and early childhood predict anxious and depressive symptomatology at school age? Human Movement Science, 29, 777–786.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Piek, J. P., Bradbury, G. S., Elsley, S. C., & Tate, L. (2008). Motor coordination and social-emotional behaviour in preschool aged children. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 55, 143–151.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Piek, J. P., Dawson, L., Smith, L. M., & Gasson, N. (2008). The role of early fine and gross motor development on later motor and cognitive ability. Human Movement Science, 27, 668–681.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Piek, J. P., Gasson, N., Barrett, N. C., & Case, I. (2002). Limb and gender differences in the development of coordination in early infancy. Human Movement Science, 21, 621–639.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Piek, J. P., Rigoli, D., Pearsall-Jones, J. G., Martin, N. C., Hay, D. A., Bennett, K. S., & Levy, F. (2007). Depressive symptomatology in child and adolescent twins with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and/or developmental coordination disorder. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 10, 587–596.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Piek, J. P., Straker, L. M., Jensen, L., Dender, A., Barrett, N. C., McLaren, S., Roberts, C., Reid, C., Rooney, R., Packer, T., Bradbury, G., & Elsley, S. (2010). Rationale, design and methods for a randomised and controlled trial to evaluate “Animal Fun” - a program designed to enhance physical and mental health in young children. BMC Pediatrics, 10, 78.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pitcher, T. M., Piek, J. P., & Hay, D. A. (2003). Fine and gross motor ability in boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 45, 525–535.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pless, M., Carlsson, M., Sundelin, C., & Persson, K. (2002). Preschool children with developmental coordination disorder: a short-term follow-up of motor status at seven to eight years of age. Acta Paediatrica, 91, 521–528.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Polatajko, H. J., Mandich, A. D., Miller, L. T., & Macnab, J. J. (2001). Cognitive orientation to daily occupational performance CO-OP: part II – the evidence. Physical & Occupational Therapy in Pediatrics, 20, 83–106.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Provine, R. R. (1993). Natural priorities for developmental study: Neuroembryological perspectives of motor development. In A. F. Kalverboer, B. Hopkins, & R. Geuze (Eds.), Motor development in early and later childhood: longitudinal approaches (pp. 1–73). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rasmussen, P., & Gillberg, C. (2000). Natural outcome of ADHD with DCD at age 22 years: a controlled longitudinal community based study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 1424–1431.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rigoli, D., Piek, J.P., Kane, R., & Oosterlaan, J. (in press). Motor skills, working memory and academic achievement in a normal population of adolescents: testing a mediation model. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology. doi:10.1093/arclin/acs061.

  • Rigoli, D., Piek, J. P., & Kane, R. (2012). Motor skills and psychosocial correlates in a normal adolescent sample. Pediatrics, 129, e892–e900. doi:10.1542/peds.2011-1237.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rose, B., Larkin, D., & Berger, B. G. (1997). Coordination and gender influences on the perceived competence of children. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 14(3), 210–221.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schoemaker, M. M., Hijlkema, M. G. J., & Kalverboer, A. F. (1994). Physiotherapy for clumsy children: an evaluation study. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 36, 143–155.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schott, N., Alof, V., Hultsch, D., & Meermann, D. (2007). Physical fitness in children with developmental coordination disorder. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 78, 438–450.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sigurdsson, E., van Os, J., & Fombonne, E. (2002). Are impaired childhood motor skills a risk factor for adolescent anxiety? Results from the 1958 U.K. birth cohort and the national child development study. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 1044–1066.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Silman, A., Cairney, J., Hay, J., Klentrou, P., & Faught, B. E. (2011). Role of physical activity and perceived adequacy on peak aerobic power in children with developmental coordination disorder. Human Movement Science, 30(3), 672–681.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Skinner, R. A., & Piek, J. P. (2001). Psychosocial implications of poor motor coordination in children and adolescents. Human Movement Science, 20, 73–94.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Slater, L. M., Hillier, S. L., & Civetta, L. R. (2010). The clinimetric properties of performance-based gross motor tests used children with developmental coordination disorder: a systematic review. Pediatric Physical Therapy. doi:10.1097/PEP.0b013e3181dbeff0.

  • Smits-Engelsman, B. C., Niemeijer, A. S., & Van Galen, G. P. (2001). Fine motor deficiencies in children diagnosed as DCD based on poor grapho-motor ability. Human Movement Science, 20, 161–182.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smits-Engelsman, B. C. M., Niemeijer, A. S., & van Waelvelde, H. (2011). Is the movement assessment battery for children-2nd edition a reliable instrument to measure motor performance in 3 year old children? Research in Developmental Disabilities, 32, 1370–1377.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smyth, M. M., & Anderson, H. I. (2000). Coping with clumsiness in the school playground: social and physical play in children with coordination impairments. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 18, 389–413.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sowell, E. R., Thompson, P. M., Leonard, C. M., Welcome, S. E., Kan, E., & Toga, A. W. (2004). Longitudinal mapping of cortical thickness and brain growth in normal children. The Journal of Neuroscience, 24(38), 8223–8231.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Spironello, C., Hay, J., Missiuna, C., Faught, B. E., & Cairney, J. (2010). Concurrent and construct validation of the short form of the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of motor proficiency and the movement-ABC when administered under field conditions: implications for screening. Child: Care, Health and Development, 36(4), 499–507.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sugden, D. A., & Chambers, M. (2003). Intervention in children with developmental coordination disorder: the role of parents and teachers. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 73, 545–561.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Super, C. M. (1976). Environmental effects on motor development: the case of “African infant precocity”. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 18, 561–567.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sveistrup, H., & Woollacott, M. (1996). Longitudinal development of the automatic response in infants. Journal of Motor Behavior, 28, 58–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sveistrup, H., & Woollacott, M. (1997). Practice modifies the developing automatic postural response. Experimental Brain Research, 114, 33–43.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tan, S. K., Parker, H. E., & Larkin, D. (2001). Concurrent validity of motor tests used to identify children with motor impairment. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 18(2), 168–182.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tau, G. Z., & Peterson, B. S. (2010). Normal development of brain circuits. Neuropsychopharmacology, 35, 147–168.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, J. R., & French, K. E. (1985). Gender differences across age in motor performance: a meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 98, 260–282.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Touwen, B. (1976). Neurological development in infancy. London: William Heinemann Medical Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ulrich, D. A. (2000). Test of gross motor development (2nd ed.). Austin Texas: Pro-ED. Inc. Examiner’s Manual.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Hartingsveldt, M. J., De Groot, I. J. M., Aarts, P. B. M., & Nijhuis-van der Sanden, M. W. G. (2011). Standardized tests of handwriting readiness: a systematic review of the literature. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 53, 506–515.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van Waelvelde, H., De Weerdet, W., De Cock, P., & Smits-Engelsman, B. C. M. (2003). Ball catching. Can it be measured? Physiotherapy Theory and Practice, 19, 259–267.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vles, J. S. H., Kroes, M., & Feron, F. J. M. (2004). MMT: Maastrichtse Motoriek test. Leiden: Pits BV.

    Google Scholar 

  • Volman, M. J., van Schendel, B. M., & Jongmans, M. J. (2006). Handwriting difficulties in primary school children: a search for underlying mechanisms. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 60, 451–460.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, P. H. (2005). Practitioner review: approaches to assessment and treatment of children with DCD: an evaluative review. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 806–823.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We wish to thank Daniela Rigoli for her assistance with the literature search for this review, and her valuable comments on an earlier draft of this manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Psychology and Speech Pathology, Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Curtin University, GPO, Box U1987, Perth, 6845, Western Australia, Australia

    Jan P. Piek

  2. Institute for Health and Rehabilitation Science, University of Notre Dame Australia, PO Box 1225, Fremantle, 6959, Western Australia, Australia

    Beth Hands

  3. School of Sport Science, Exercise & Health, The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, 6009, Western Australia, Australia

    Melissa K. Licari

Authors
  1. Jan P. Piek
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Beth Hands
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Melissa K. Licari
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jan P. Piek.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Piek, J.P., Hands, B. & Licari, M.K. Assessment of Motor Functioning in the Preschool Period. Neuropsychol Rev 22, 402–413 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-012-9211-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-012-9211-4

Keywords